Category: Blog: Racism

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The 2020 resurgence of Black Lives Matter (BLM), while centered on Black communities, has also highlighted racial injustices on a broad scale. In particular, BLM Canada has recognized that their struggles are tied up with the decades-long struggle of Indigenous peoples in Canada, and that “there is no black liberation without Indigenous liberation” (BLM Canada, 2020). This larger movement is illuminating the connections between injustices towards Black and Indigenous communities in Canada, as well as the ways in which they have been fighting back.

In the 1492 Landback Lane dispute in Caledonia, Ontario, the Haudenosaunee are resisting a subdivision being built on their ancestral lands by occupying the land. Courts sided with the developers, and Ontario Provincial Police have arrested many of the land protectors (Kennedy, 2020). In Nova Scotia, the Sipeke’katik, a Mi’kmaq band, created a self-regulated, rights-based fishery. Non-Indigenous fishers have responded in violent protest, engaging in acts such as blocking boats and destroying property (Coletta, 2020).

These resistances can be boiled down to one major theme: Indigenous communities asserting and protecting their treaty rights, while White Canadians, with the backing of the state, attempt to stop them. This theme can be seen throughout the history of Canada. Since before Canada was founded, colonial authorities have tried to control Indigenous communities and erase their culture, and these communities have fought back.

Early “Canadian” History

Indigenous resistance goes back to before the so-called “founding” of Canada. In the 1800s, for example, Louis Riel organized the Métis to fight for governance and land rights during the Red River and North West Rebellions (Bumsted, 2019; Beal & Macleod, 2019). Throughout the 1880s into the early 1900s, many Indigenous groups formed to fight for issues such as loss of land, failure to recognize land and treaty rights, culturally destructive policies and practices, and poor economic and health conditions on reserves (Dyck & Sadik, 2019).

In 1967 the National Indian Brotherhood and several provincial groups joined to oppose the White Paper, a proposal to abolish the Indian Act and Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (Dyck & Sadik, 2019). A paper which would have effectively removed the legal status and special rights of Indigenous peoples in Canada (University of British Columbia, n.d.).

Contemporary Struggles

Indigenous communities are protecting traditional lands that non-Indigenous people continue to encroach on. During the Oka Crisis (1990), the Kanien’kehá:ka (People of the Flint, or commonly known as Mohawk people) of Kanehsatà:ke resisted the construction of a golf course on their ancestral lands by setting up a barricade. The town of Oka responded by sending in the military to shut down the protests (Marshall, 2020).

Idle No More is a grassroots movement that arose in opposition to Bill C-45, which eroded environmental protections and treaty rights. The movement sought to honor treaties and re-establish nation-to-nation relations between Indigenous communities and Canada. It used teach-ins, rallies, protests, flash mob round dances, and social media to share messages and influence decision-makers (Barker, 2015). Around this time Chief Theresa Spence went on a hunger strike to protest poor conditions on her reserve (Barker, 2015). This hunger strike received national media attention, and together with Idle No More, boosted the profile of the poor conditions on Indigenous reserves and the violation of treaty rights.

More recently, plans for a pipeline through Wet’suwet’en Nation territory, without the hereditary chiefs’ consent, led to a protest checkpoint in order to stop developers. In response, the government sent police to shut them down (Temper, 2018). Indigenous peoples were protesting colonial power by asserting their rights to land and traditional Indigenous authority (McCreary & Turner, 2018).

Failures of the Government

Indigenous peoples in Canada have worked with the federal government to address the many injustices they face but have rarely seen actionable changes. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal People (1991) recommended that the government commit to a new set of ethical principles with Indigenous peoples that respects the inherent right to Indigenous self-determination; this was never implemented (Dyck & Sadik, 2019; Marshall, 2020). In 2015 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was created to address the legacy of residential schools. It recommended 94 calls to action, but so far only 10 have been completed (CBC News, 2020). In addition, the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (2019) listed 231 calls to address injustices against Indigenous women, but the federal government has yet to implement the recommended national action plan.

Indigenous communities have been fighting against colonialism, the erasure of their culture, and the erosion of treaty rights for decades. This history shows that real change cannot occur within the current system. Many Indigenous activists in Canada are advocating for an anti-racist and de-colonial approach, in which we dismantle the structures that were designed to assimilate and control them, and replace them with structures that are based in and uphold Indigenous thought and sovereignty. We, as allies, need to listen to the voices of Indigenous people in Canada and advocate for a better social world.

Further Readings

Alongside these movements, Indigenous academics, journalists, and literary authors have written about colonialism, the oppression of Indigenous peoples and ways of life, and solutions to these issues based in Indigenous thought. Below are just a few examples:

• Leanne Betasamosake Simpson is a Michi Saagiig Nishnaabeg scholar, writer, and artist. Her work is centered around Nishnaabeg intellectual practices. Her work spans genres and topics, from academic work on indigenous resistance, to literature about contemporary Indigenous issues. Read: Simpson, L. B. (2017). As we have always done. University of Minnesota Press.
• Tanya Talaga is an Anishinaabe journalist. Her work looks at how colonialism, the separation of Indigenous people from their land, communities, and culture, and legacies of human rights violations have harmed Indigenous youth. Read: Talaga, T. (2018). All our relations: Finding the path forward
• Eve Tuck’s work focuses on how Indigenous social thought can be engaged to create more fair and just social policy, more meaningful social movements, and robust approaches to decolonization. Read: Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 1-40.

Sources

Barker, A. J. (2015). A direct act of resurgence, a direct act of sovereignty: Reflections on idle no more, Indigenous activism, and Canadian settler colonialism. Globalizations, 12(1), 43-65. DOI: 10.1080/14747731.2014.971531

Beal, B., & Macleod, R. (2019). North West Rebellion. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/article/north-west-rebellion

Black Lives Matter Canada (2020). About Us. https://blacklivesmatter.ca/

Bumsted, J. M. (2019, Nov 22). Red River Rebellion. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/red-river-rebellion

CBC News (2020). Beyond 94: Truth and reconciliation in Canada. CBC News. https://newsinteractives.cbc.ca/longform-single/beyond-94?&cta=1

Coletta, A. (Oct 26, 2020). Indigenous people in Nova Scotia exercised their right to catch lobster: Now they’re under attack. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/canada-nova-scotia-indigenous-lobster-fishery/2020/10/24/d7e83f54-12ed-11eb-82af-864652063d61_story.html

Dyck, N. & Sadik, T. (2019). Indigenous political organization and activism in Canada. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-people-political-organization-and-activism

Kennedy, B. (Oct 23, 2020). As standoff at ‘1492 Land Back Lane’ heats up in Caledonia, land defenders say, ‘This is a moment for our people to say no.’ The Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2020/10/23/as-standoff-at-1492-land-back-lane-heats-up-in-caledonia-land-defenders-say-this-is-a-moment-for-our-people-to-say-no.html

Marshall, T. (2020) The Oka Crisis. The Canadian Enclyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/oka-crisis

McCreary, T., & Turner, J. (2018). The contested scales of Indigenous and settler jurisdiction: Unist’ot’en struggles with Canadian pipeline governance.

National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. (2019). Reclaiming power and place: The final report of the national inquiry into missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/

Temper, L. (2018). Blocking pipelines, unsettling environmental justice: from rights of nature to responsibility to territory. Local Environment 24(2), 94.112.

University of British Columbia. (n.d.). The White Paper, 1969. First Nations and Indigenous Studies. https://indigenousfounda-tions.arts.ubc.ca/the_white_paper_1969/

 

 

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Since the death of George Floyd at the hands of a police officer in Minneapolis, we have seen a swell of protests under the banner of Black Lives Matter, drawing attention to the ways in which Black, Indigenous, and people of colour (BIPOC) are oppressed in contemporary society, and calling for social change.

Black Lives Matter (BLM) an international, member-led, global network that “organize[s] and build[s] local power to intervene in violence inflicted on Black communities by the state and vigilantes” (Black Lives Matter, n.d.). It was created by a trio of Black women in California after the man who killed Trayvon Martin was acquitted in 2013, and grew as attention was drawn to multiple incidences in the USA in which police caused the deaths of Black individuals—and were never charged. In Canada, people protested in solidarity and formed BLM chapters across the country, most notably in Toronto. This group has drawn attention to police killings within the municipal region (Furman, Singh, Darko, & Wilson, 2018; Cole, 2020). BLM largely focuses on police violence but addresses many other areas in which Black people are oppressed, and purposely centers the concerns of female and LGBTQ+ members. For example, In 2016, BLM stopped the Pride parade in Toronto to point out that the Pride organization was not addressing the unique needs of Black LGBTQ+ people, and demanded better treatment (Furman, Singh, Darko, & Wilson, 2018; Cole, 2020). While BLM focuses on issues of police and state brutality, they also work to highlight the lack of leadership positions held by Black trans, queer, or feminine individuals.

Alongside BLM, there are many Canadian academics and writers who write about the oppressions Black people face in contemporary society. Below are just a few examples:

• Desmond Cole looks at the ways in which institutions, such as the police, schools, and immigration system, perpetuate anti-Black racism and white supremacy in Canada. He also shows the power of Black communities through highlighting how activists have resisted and fought for change. Read: Cole, D. (2020). The skin we’re in. Double Day Canada
• Robyn Maynard traces the legacy of slavery into modern institutions in the Canadian context, and the ways in which these institutions perpetuate contemporary issues such as poverty, unemployment, racial profiling, incarceration, child removal, and low graduation rates. Read: Maynard, R. (2017). Policing Black lives: State violence in Canada from slavery to the present. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing
• Rinaldo Walcott researches a variety of topics related to Black Canadians, ranging from the role of Black Canadians and culture in defining Canada, to the ways in which the Canadian state ignores violence against Black people. Read: Walcott, R. & Abdillahi, I. (2019). Blacklike: Post-BLM and the struggle for freedom. Winnipeg: ARP Books

BLM comes from a long history of Black-led social movements. Members take inspiration from this history, but also recognize the limitation of these movements and seek to fill those gaps. As such, ESPC decided to look at the history of Black-led social movements and protest in Canada, the changes that occurred because of them, and their limitations.

The Early 20^th Century

Around the time of the First World War, many Black Canadians noticed the irony of fighting against oppression overseas, only to face oppression when they came home (Calliste, 1995; Waters, 2014). In 1917, Black sleeping car porters, working for some of the largest rail companies, started the first Black worker’s union to fight for better working conditions after they were denied access to White unions (Tomchuck, n.d).

In Nova Scotia, Viola Desmond—the face of the Canadian 10 dollar bill—fought racism by refusing to leave a “Whites only” section in a Nova Scotia movie theater back in 1946, an act for which she was arrested (Bingham, 2019).

The Civil Rights Movement

During the Civil Rights Movement, Canadians formed numerous organizations such as the Alberta Association for the Advancement of Coloured Peoples (Smith & Raphael, n.d.; Waters, 2014). This sweeping movement brought about human rights laws that prohibited discrimination. Many of these laws focused on removing employment discrimination, so Black Canadians could have more opportunity for economic advancement. Unfortunately, these laws were fairly limited in what they could accomplish, and didn’t address the fundamental nature of systemic racism (Callister, 1995; Waters, 2014).

Black Power

Black Canadians were deeply involved in the Black Power movement. Black Power arose from young Black people who believed the Civil Rights Movement did not go far enough. They went beyond fighting against discrimination, and fought for Black economic and political power. Rather than being “allowed” into white institutions, they wanted to re-think the social order (Calliste, 1995).

In 1968, the Congress of Black Writers held an event at which Black Canadians and prominent Black Power members met to discuss Black liberation, and empowering young people to act against racism (Austin 2013). Shortly after, the George Williams affair in Montreal (1969), was spurred after George Williams University administration dismissed claims that a professor was unfairly giving Black students low grades. In protest, the students occupied the campus computer room for 14 days. The affair ended when police stormed the room, beating the protesters and arresting 97 of them (Austin 2013; Forsyth, 1971). In following years, several pieces of legislation were implemented to address systemic barriers that Black and other marginalized people faced, including the Canadian Human Rights Act (1977) the Employment Equity Act (1986), and the Alberta Human Rights Act (1996) (Smith & Raphael, n.d.). The Black Power movements also had limitations as it did not address the unique needs of Black women, and in doing so may have perpetuated gender-based discrimination within the movement (Calliste, 1995).

Black Canadians have had a long history of fighting against individual, institutional, and systemic racism. However, there is still a lot of work to be done. These past movements have brought in anti-discrimination and human rights laws, yet Black Canadians continue to face discrimination and oppression. Some are now advocating for an anti-racist approach, in which we identify, challenge, and dismantle structures that promote racism, and create and support ones that promote racial equity.

Sources:

Austin, D. (2013). Fear of a black nation: Race, sex and security in sixties Montreal. Toronto: Between the lines

Lorde, A. (1984). The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house. In: Sister outsider: Essays and Speeches (pp.110-114). New York: The Crossing Press

Bingham, R. (2019). Viola Desmond. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/viola-desmond

Black Lives Matter (n.d.). What we believe. Black Lives Matter. https://blacklivesmatter.com/what-we-believe/

Calliste, A. (1995). The influence of the civil rights and black power movements in Canada. Race, Gender, and Class 2(3). P. 123-139.

Cole, D. (2020). The skin we’re in. Double Day Canada

Furman, E., Singh, A. K., Darko, N. A., & Wilson, C. L. (2018). Activism, intersectionality, and community psychology: The way in which Black Lives MAtter Toronto helps us examine white supremacy in Canada’s LGBTQ Community. Community Psychology in Global Perspective, 4(2), 34-54. DOI: 10.1285/i24212113v4i2p34

Forsythe, D. (1971). Let the niggers burn: The Sir George Williams University affair and its Caribbean aftermath. Montreal: Black Rose Books-Our Generation Press

Smith, M., & Raphael, D. (n.d.). Focus on visible minorities: Key equity and human rights milestone in Alberta & Canada. University of Alberta

Tomchuck, T. (n.d.). Black sleeping car porters: The struggle for Black labour rights on Canada’s Railways. Canadian Museum for Human Rights. https://humanrights.ca/story/sleeping-car-porters

Waters, R. (2014). African Canadian anti-discrimination activism and the transnational civil rights movement, 1945-1965. Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 24(2), 386-424.  https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/jcha/2013-v24-n2-jcha01408/1025083ar/

 

 

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We at the Edmonton Social Planning Council are often humbled by how much we are constantly learning about racism, while grappling with our complicity in racist systems. Racism is a devastating social ailment. Its effects span across sectors, with implications in housing, employment, health care, justice, education, and community building. Systemic racism is a network of policies, attitudes, and collective histories that actively harms Black, Indigenous, and People of Colour (BIPOC). In this upcoming series of blog posts, we will be exploring a variety of topics related to racism in Canada. This includes the history of Indigenous and Black movements in Canada, systemic racism in education and justice, and the role of disaggregated, race-based data.

Racism—and all its insidious complexities—is rooted firmly into the society and structures in which we operate. As a society, we must eliminate systemic racism in all of its forms, whether it be explicit (e.g. the Indian Act, violations of the Alberta Human Rights Act, etc.), or implicit (e.g. the centering of “white” voices, colour-blindness, and exclusion of BIPOC individuals in decision making at organizational and governmental levels within community, work, and social services). The non-profit sector has long championed the rights of marginalized or disenfranchised populations. There are numerous excellent organizations and individuals doing important work to eradicate racism, but, despite this, racism persists.

Long have we known that racism contributes directly to economic harm here in Canada. Recent data has shown that racialized individuals are more than twice as likely to be in poverty compared to their non-racialized counterparts, and almost one in five Black Edmontonians are low-income, compared to less than one in ten non-Visible Minority.¹ Racialized workers are also more likely to be unemployed (9.2% vs 7.3% as of 2016). This is despite the fact that racialized workers are more active in the labour force, either working or trying to find work. Since 2006, this trend has only gotten worse.

Another way of highlighting the impacts of racism and employment is to break down the effects of income disparity between different racialized groups. Black and Indigenous communities are still the more likely to be in poverty compared to their non-Black or Indigenous counterparts.² People are treated differently based on their skin colour, including tenants who are rejected by their landlords, applicants who are turned away from prospective employers, and those looking for acceptance in community programs.^3-5 These glaring disparities result in unacceptable gaps in health outcomes, educational attainment, and mental health challenges among racialized groups. We must work diligently to close these gaps so that our communities thrive in an equitable and just manner.

It is a myth that racism never existed in Canada or has been eradicated. Racial prejudices are reinforced by systems of power that actively harm Black and Indigenous individuals, families, and communities. It is not enough to focus on equity, diversity, or inclusion. Rather, we must become active participants in an ongoing and active process of fighting against individual, institutional, and systemic racism. It is about identifying, challenging, and dismantling structures that promote racism, and supporting ones that promote racial equity. This suite of activities is sometimes called anti-racism, and represents a transformative approach to combatting racism. On an individual level, being anti-racist means being “willing to admit the times in which [we] are being racist, [and] willing to recognize the inequities and the racial problems of our society, [and] willing to challenge those racial inequities by challenging policy.”⁶

We therefore invite all readers to join us in vulnerability as we become better allies, together. If you want to join the conversation, send us an email (info@edmontonsocialplanning.ca), follow us on Facebook or Twitter, or sign up for our newsletter.

Sources:

1. Ngo, S. and Kolkman, J. (2019). A Profile of Poverty in Edmonton. Updated May 2019. Edmonton Social Planning Council. https://edmontonsocialplanning.ca/a-profile-of-poverty-in-edmonton-may-2019-update-2/
2. Block, S., Galabuzi, G., and Tranjan, R.  (2019). Canada’s Colour Coded Income Inequality. Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. https://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/canadas-colour-coded-income-inequality
3. Edmonton Community Foundation and Edmonton Social Planning Council. (2015). Vital Signs: Edmonton’s Urban Aboriginal Population. https://edmontonsocialplanning.ca/vital-signs-edmonton-2015-2/
4. Edmonton Community Foundation and Edmonton Social Planning Council. (2016). Vital Signs: Immigrants. https://edmontonsocialplanning.ca/vitalsigns-2016/
5. Edmonton Community Foundation and Edmonton Social Planning Council. (2019). Vital Topic: Indigenous Women in Alberta. https://edmontonsocialplanning.ca/vital-topic-indigenous-women-in-alberta/
6. Kendi, I. X. (2020). The difference between being “not racist” and antiracist. https://www.ted.com/talks/ibram_x_kendi_the_difference_between_being_not_racist_and_antiracist/transcript

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